The Effect of Energy Density and Eating Rate on Ad Libitum Energy Intake in healthy adults - A Randomized Controlled Study.

Objective: The extent to which energy density (ED) and eating rate (ER) interact in their effect on energy intake of meals remains unknown. The aim was to determine the independent and combined effects of ED and ER on ad-libitum food and energy intake and to compare to a control meal (medium ED and ER). We hypothesized that lower ED/slower ER would decrease intake and higher ED/faster ER would increase intake, relative to control. Methods: In a 2x2 randomized cross-over design with a medium-control condition. Participants (n=69, age 25 ± 5 y (mean ± SD), BMI 23 ± 4 kg/m2) joined 5-lunchtime meal sessions during which they were served ad libitum sandwiches (67-98 EN% Ultra-processed ingredients) that varied in ER (slow, fast) and ED low (1.9 kcal/g), or high (3.8 kcal/g). The control meal was a 'typical-lunch' sandwich with medium ED (2.9 kcal/g), average ER. Main outcomes were food(gram) and energy intake(kcal). Results: We found a significant ED*ER interaction effect on energy intake (F (1,272)=5.2, p=0.024). Energy intake of the slow-ER/low-ED meal (Mean 570 kcal (95%CI: 442, 698) was 573 kcal (50%) lower compared to the fast-ER/high-ED meal (1143 kcal (1015, 1271)). Compared to control, a slow-ER and low-ED reduced energy-intake by 59% (Mean Δ of 394 kcal (480,308)) and a fast-ER/high-ED increased energy intake by 19% (Δ 179 kcal (94,265)). Conclusions: Our results emphasize that ED and ER can moderate ad-libitum energy intake. These findings highlight the importance of combined nutrition and sensory strategies to moderate caloric intake from (ultra-processed) meals.

Background: Clinical Trial registry(NCT05659771), https://www.

Results: gov. Data is available upon request.