Volatile Organic Compounds in Indoor Air: Sampling, Determination, Sources, Health Risk, and Regulatory Insights.

Indoor air pollution is a serious public health issue caused by the accumulation of numerous toxic contaminants within enclosed spaces. Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), biological contaminants (mould, bacteria, and allergies), inorganic gases (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide), and a variety of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are examples of common indoor air pollutants. VOCs are one of the chief indoor contaminants, and their effects on human health have made indoor air quality a serious concern. Indoor VOC concentrations are frequently higher than outdoor levels, according to studies, which raises the danger of exposure, particularly for young people and those with respiratory disorders. VOCs originate from both biogenic and anthropogenic sources, and they can create secondary pollutants like ozone and aerosols, which can lead to cardiovascular and pulmonary problems. Prolonged exposure to VOCs has been associated with respiratory irritation, neurological effects, and an increased risk of chronic diseases. This review examines the primary sources, sampling and analysis approach, and health impact of VOCs in indoor air. Additionally, we compared worldwide regulatory guidelines for VOC exposure limits, emphasizing the need for strict exposure limits to protect human health.